Cultural Awareness and Competence Essay Example for Free

Cultural Awareness and Competence EssayCultural sensation and competence refers to the ability of an individual to postpone judgment and prejudice toward other passel based on their religious background, race or ethnicity, sexual orientation or gender, age, and such, and also ones capability of understanding, accepting, and even adapting to unfamiliar culture, points of view, beliefs, ideologies, traditions, etc. Raising ones ethnic cognizance and competence requires allocating prison term and exerting effort in discipline and understanding the concepts of multi heathenishism or cultural diversity.For instance, developing specific learning goals and a plan of action is an excellent start to promoting cultural awareness. My desire to raise my cultural awareness of two specific groups, particularly homosexuals and individuals belonging to the black population, require that I set personal learning goals and a plan of action that will guide how I am going to go about the proc ess of learning and understanding culture based on race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation.For this particular case, I believe that two of my learning goals should include reviewing the history of the African-American people, particularly the reasons why they are being discriminated upon, as salutary as the unfamiliar cultural practices and traditions and the meaning and significance that deepens or intensify their culture, and understanding the personal sentiments and emotions of homosexuals in order for me to recognize where they are coming from and be able to empathize with them in the process regarding their unfortunate situation especially when it comes to being judged or discriminated because of their sexual orientation.In order for me to realize the aforementioned learning goals, I plan to conduct research by reading books, magazines, newspaper articles, journal publications, research studies, online articles, and such, about black people and homosexuality. Moreover, I feel that at that place is a need for me to socialize with individuals belonging to the African-American culture and homosexuals in order for me to obtain first-hand information about their sentiments, experiences, knowledge, and such.I believe that through my willingness and intent to immerse myself into the African-American culture and the world of homosexuality, I will be able to promote cultural awareness simply by being certified of the issues that they burden themselves with. EXODUS International is an online web berth that discriminates against homosexuals. It is a religion-based brass that provides assistance for individuals who want to leave homosexuality. The organization subtly reiterates that homosexuality is against the will and the word of God and that difference homosexuality is a way for individuals to live a better life according to what God wants for His children. Moreover, within the lines of EXODUS Internationals mission and objectives, the organization clearly m entions that homosexuals will not be able to live a fulfilling and holy life. (EXODUS International, 2005) The blog Stuff purity People Like is an online website that discriminates against African-Americans simply because the site is devoted to discuss issues that generalize on the likes and dislikes of white people.The website lists more than one hundred things that white people like. I believe generalizing and labeling things or situations as something that is accepted or amenable unaccompanied for a certain race is close to prejudice and bias since one is limiting these things and situations to a particular race only despite the fact that other individuals from diverse racial backgrounds may share the likes and dislikes of white people. (Stuff White People Like, 2009) I can honestly say that I am non-judgmental or prejudice in any way against any group of people in society depending on their race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, gender, and such.I am also proud t o say that my parents raised me well. Although my family is American and adheres to Christianity as a religion, we do not judge other people from different racial backgrounds and religions. Because of my parents and family, I was able to understand that people are different from each other, and although we are different, I do not have the right to judge other people because of it. Moreover, I understand that people have different frames of mind or worldviews and we see things and situations differently.Handling the matter only requires respect and acceptance and the understanding of cultural diversity or multiculturalism. Judging from my self-assessment of my cultural awareness and competency, I believe I will be able to uphold moral and ethical principles in my profession, especially with issues that concern multiculturalism. Perhaps the only challenge that I would have to face is how I am going to develop and increase my cultural awareness to cope with multicultural trends and new information.References EXODUS International. (2005). Thinking of Leaving Homosexuality? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from Exodus International. Website http//exodus. to/help/? option=com_contenttask=viewid=327Itemid=147 Harvey, C. Alard, M. J. (2008). Understanding and Managing Diversity, 4th Ed. Prentice Hall. Stuff White People Like. (2009). Retrieved January 7, 2009, from Stuff White People Like. Website http//stuffwhitepeoplelike. com/

Effect of Reducing Agents on the Growth of Magnetospirilla

Effect of Reducing Agents on the Growth of MagnetospirillaShubhashri Chakraborthy, Pauline Shekina, Upasana Dey and Suthindhiran KrishAbstractMagnetotactic bacteria are a fascinating group of microorganisms. Magnetospirilla is a microaerophilic bacterium. The issue of reducing agents varies with the cell depending on the properties of the reagent. They also produce different redox potentials which force a substrate to follow specific metabolic pathway in order to change the product or rate of the reaction. So it is essential to study the effect of reducing agents on the increase of Magnetospirilla. Two strains of this bacterium, MSR-1 and RJS-1 were selected for the study. Reducing agents like Ascorbic Acid, Cysteine and Glutathione were active in several(a) concentrations and the bacteria were cultured. The ideal concentration of the reducing agents required for the appendage of these two strains was identified. Glutathione at the concentration 0.250mg/ml is found to be ideal f or the yield of MSR-1 and Cysteine at the concentration of 0.250mg/ml is found to be ideal for the growth of RJS-1 strain of MagnetospirillaKeywords Magnetotactic bacteria Ascorbic Acid Cysteine Glutathione Reducing agents.IntroductionMagnetotactic bacteria (orMTB) are apolyphyleticgroup ofbacteria that orient along themagnetic field lines of Earths magnetic field with the help of organelles c altogethered magnetosomes. Magnetosomes are iron crystals of magnetite or greigite. The movement of microorganisms in response to the magnetic characteristics of the environment is known asmagnetotaxis. many an(prenominal) efforts have been made to optimize the growth conditions of MTB.4 Magnetospirilla are facultative anaerobic magnetic bacterium. Reducing agents can have very different effects on the microbial cells depending on the properties of the reagent and of the properties of the cell itself. Reducing agents can produce different redox potentials which might be force a substrate to follow a specific metabolic pathway in order to change the rate or product of the reaction.6 Previous studies showed that changing the redox environment had a smashed impact in the applications of Magnetospirilla. Therefore we studied the effect of different reducing agents at different concentrations on the growth of Magnetospirilla.Materials and MethodsCulturing the bacteriaTwo strains of Magnetospirilla, MSR-1 (DSMZ, Germany) and RJS-1(Marine Biotechnology Lab, VIT University) were heavy(a) in liquid Magnetic Spirillum Growth Medium (MSGM).1 A stock of 500ml of the MSGM media was prepared without reducing agents and Resazurin. 7ml of the media were transferred in small vials and it was purged with nitrogen gas for 3 minutes to provide microaerophilic condition. The vials were sealed with butyl rubber septa and aluminium centre holed caps. These vials were autoclaved at 121C for 15 minutes. Stock solution of the reducing agents Ascorbic Acid, Cysteine, Glutathione and Sodium Sul fide (10mg/10ml) were prepared and filter sterilized. Heat sensitive materials such as vitamins were also filter sterilized. 70l of filtered vitamin solution and 14l of filtered ferric quinate solution were interpreted in sterile eppendorf tubes. Different concentrations of reducing agents (0.125mg/ml, 0.250mg/ml, 0.375mg/ml and 0.500mg/ml) were also taken in the eppendorf tubes containing the vitamin and ferric quinate solutions. Using sterile needles and syringes these solutions were transferred into the vials. These vials were incubated at 37C in a shaker.Checking the growth of the bacteriaThe growth of the bacteria were observed using spectrophotometer. Optical Density (OD) was taken at 595nm in 24, 26, 29, 38, 44 and 48 hours of incubation. The set are plotted in graph to find the maximum growth rate.Results and DiscussionA graph was plotted against time in hours and the OD set taken for different concentrations of reducing agents. run into 1. Graph display the growth of Mag netospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Ascorbic Acid.The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Ascorbic acid.Figure 2. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Cysteine.The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentrations 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine.Figure 3. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Glutathione.The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Glutathione.Figure 4. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (MSR-1) at various concentrations of Sodium Sulfide.The growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Sodium Sulfide. Comparing all the OD values the growth of MSR-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Glutathione.Figure 5. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Ascorbic Acid.The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.375mg/ml of Ascorbic Acid.Figure 6. G raph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Cysteine.The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine.Figure 7. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Glutathione.The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.375mg/ml of Glutathione.Figure 8. Graph showing the growth of Magnetospirilla (RJS-1) at various concentrations of Sodium Sulfide.The growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.500mg/ml of Sodium Sulfide. Comparing all the OD values the growth of RJS-1 was maximum at the concentration 0.250mg/ml of Cysteine.Our studies showed that optimal concentration of reducing agents showed increased growth. When the concentration of reducing agents is increased advertise it inhibits the growth because of toxicity. Optimal concentration of reducing agents reduces the lag time and enhances the cell density.ConclusionThere are many other reducing agents which are use for growing various species of Magnetotactic bacteria. From the results we got it is suggested that Glutathione at the concentration 0.250mg/ml is ideal for the growth of MSR-1 and Cysteine at the concentration of 0.250mg/ml is ideal for the growth of RJS-1 strain of Magnetospirilla.References1 Blakemore R P, Maratea D and Wolfe R S, Isolation and Pure Culture of a Freshwater Magnetic Spirillum in Chemically Defined Medium, Journal of Bacteriology, 140(2), 720, 1979.2 Cody Nash, Mechanisms and Evolution of Magnetotactic Bacteria, 2008.3 Damien Faivre and Dirk Schuler, Magnetotactic Bacteria and Magnetosomes, Chem.Rev, 108, 48754898, 2008.4 can buoy F. Stolz, Magnetosomes, Journal of General Microbiology, 139, 1663-1670,1993.5 Tadashi Matsunaga and Toshifumi Sakaguchi, Molecular Mechanism of Magnet arrangement in Bacteria, Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 90, 1-13, 2000.6 Xiangqian Li, Qilei Wang and Yemin Xue, On the Change in Bacterial Growth and Magnetosome Formation for Magnetosprillum Sp. Strain AMB-1 Under Different Concentrations of Reducing Agents, Jorunal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,13, 1392-1398, 2013.7 Yoshihito Uchino and Suzuki Ken-Ichiro, A Simple Preparation of Liquid Media for the Cultivation of Strict Anaerobes, Journal of Petroleum and Environmental Biotechnology, S3-001, 2157-2160, 2011.

Impact of Foreign Aid on Nigeria Development

Impact of Foreign Aid on Nigeria DevelopmentCHAPTER FIVESUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION5.1 unofficialThis study examined the extent to which Foreign aid in particular the debt abatement initiative has contributed to human breeding in Nigeria. It particularly sought to examine the relationship in the midst of Foreign aid and development considering the underlying political-economic conditions and the forcefulness of aid on human development. This work likewise sought to analyze how the World Banks Debt Relief initiative has enabled human development in form of better living standards and access to essential facilities in Nigeria. Finally, this research sought to evaluate the political-economic conditions particularly underlying the effectiveness of the World Banks Debt Relief initiative to Nigeria.Chapter one introduced the study introducing a general background to the study the renderment of puzzle the research questions objectives of the study research proposition signifi piece of tailce of the study scope and limitations of the study.Chapter two focused on the review of scholarly literature on the airfield matter. The chapter illustrated the historical background to Foreign aid in the International system and its contributions to development in general. The chapter also included a theoretical framework examining the possibility used for study review as well as the current trends regarding the subject.Chapter three in the other hand was devoted to the historical perspective of irrelevant aid in Nigeria. Chapter four attempts a critical discourse of the subject matter of debt championship and human development. The chapter reviewed and evaluated the believes on the effectiveness of the Debt Relief Initiative to Nigeria. It particularly sought to examine the impact and effect of the debt relief initiative on Human development in Nigeria. It started off examining the debt relief initiative, followed by the debates on its effectiveness and ma nagement in recipient enounces and concluded with a critical analysis of the effectiveness of the debt relief initiative on human development in Nigeria so as to determine if contrary aid in form of debt relief has contributed to human development in Nigeria. This chapter being the fifth summarizes the research and all findings carried out. It also includes recommendations and suggestions for further studies.5.2 RecommendationsOne of the significant conclusions of the aid-effectiveness literature has been that aid is more effective when the recipient countrys policy and institutional environment satisfies some stripped-down criteria, and that aid should thus be allocated selectively on the basis of the quality (established policies and initiatives) of prospective recipients economic and social policies (World Bank, 1998). To buttress this assertion, Thomas (2001) points out that some to a great extent Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) had no policy responses to poverty, HIV/Aids or corruption until they were required to do so as conditions for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative. He concluded by suggesting that unless debt relief is effectively conditioned on the proper use of funds and the pursuit of structural improves, it is unlikely to help the poor. This has been the Aid efficiency-conditionality debate surrounding the subject matter.It is rather quite unfortunate that the afore mentioned assertion or debate was somewhat verified in Nigeria with the establishment of the Debt Management Office and the realistic Poverty Fund initiatives that were as a result of a desperate need for a debt relief. What is more reliving though is that the DMO is actually still in place and very much efficient in managing the Nations external and internal debt, and confine shown certain level of accountability and transparency. This is seen with the up-to-the-minute data available on the Debt Management Office (DMO) website for Nigerians to familiarize themselves wit h the office and all that has been done to break a debt relief and all that there is to managing further debt some(prenominal) on the state level and the federal level. This research further recommends that r as yetues from oil be utilized appropriately to turn over resources available to finance investment that would in turn lead to growth.No doubt, there is the individual approach to office administration and policy initiation. But because the nature of Public administration allows for continuity even after the presiding officer or chair steps down, it is therefore appropriate to recommend that the established Debt Management Office and the Virtual Trust Fund (VPF) that was internationally commendable suggest that the Nigerian Government is competent enough to initiate functional approaches to challenges in the state and manage such initiatives effectively. It would be worthwhile therefore, to have our leaders put that same zeal and drive to initiating solutions to several othe r challenges facing the state and run it efficiently as the DMO was viciously run to get debt relief.Apart from debt relief being a form of aid in Nigeria, the aid fund goes directly to the ministries, department or agency (MDA) that uses the fund. This is contrary to what happened in other Sub Sahara African Countries such as Kenya and Ghana in which foreign aid is treated as part of the budget. The Senate in Nigeria has warned against the disbursement of foreign aid coming into the country without subject area Assemblys involvement. The lawmakers are now insisting that such funds must henceforth be captured in the nations budget process for the purpose of tracking its flow and disbursement into Nigerias critical sectors (The Will, 2011). The idea is that by-passing budget will result in timely fall of the aid to the critical sectors of the economy. Also, by-passing budget would ensure that aid money is not diverted to non-aided projects in the country. It is affirmable that the re is the fear of embezzlement and mismanagement. And so I would recommend that the ministries, department or agency (MDA) that receive and utilize aid fund continue to do so but with a report to the National Assembly on a detailed account of aid fund.To effectively assess the effectiveness of the VPF or any aid fund for that matter, it is important for preserve projects to include the names or complete detail of projects so as to allow for complete evaluation.One may question if poor policy exploit is a cause or a consequence of external debt or debt over hang for that matter. The debt overhang theory and the more general concerns of debt distorting incentives of the borrowing countries to reform imply that poor policy performance could be an outcome caused by external debt, at least in some of the HIPC countries, especially in the perfectly run, as governments have much less incentive to absorb reform costs if they primarily produce income for foreign creditors. This should not be the gaffe for Nigeria with the prodigality revenue from oil does. It does not allow for the conclusion that poor policy performance could be an outcome caused by external debt. Rather, gross mismanagement of habitual fund, looting and perpetuated greed has caused poor policy performance.The civil society could have suppressed mismanagement to some extent but that is not really the case because what is seen is a state where there is minimal horizontal accountability and almost an invisible vertical accountability. In fact, the Nigerian citizens are negligent of the existence of the state and tend to survive with or without its input. This should not be the case. For Nigerian leaders to be accountable, citizens must actively participate in the politics of the state and make demands without fear.As many other reviews have recommended, this research would also recommend that Nigeria should diversify her economy to have multiple income streams. It is true that no state can be self -sufficient but the manner in which aid is given to Nigeria is very appalling and not needed. Least to say the food imported to Nigeria on a daily basis. If any state cannot feed itself and grow itself and its capacity, such state is bound to be underdeveloped of which Nigeria is not fit to be termed underdeveloped due to her vast riches in natural resources, man power, intellectual and industrial capacity, market and population. This research would therefore recommend a shift from a Rentier mentality to a self-reliant economy and state.5.3 ConclusionIn other research, the overall impact of debt relief continues to be unclear. Whereas there is little in the focusing of complete analysis or country case studies to compare the Nigeria case with. Chauvin and Kraay (2005) however, argue that debt relief has had no perceptible impact on the composition or effectiveness of public spending. Some skeptics, including Easterly (2002) and Jain (2007) have argued that debt relief, or the Heav ily Indebted Poor Countries process can make public policy worse. On the other hand, Arslanalp and Henry (2005) argue both borrowers and lenders can benefit from debt relief when the borrower suffers from debt overhang, whilst World Bank (2006) paints a broadly positive footfall as to the policy course of post completion point countries of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative. Against this mixed picture, the Nigerian analysis as summarized in the forego chapter, suggests a success story.More so, it is important to note that debt relief is only a drop in the ocean of reform that is needed in Nigeria. Besides, debt relief was labeled as special money that had political support, high visibility, and accountability processes surrounding it especially so as to gain credit from international donors (at the sign stages). Every other money is wasted, mismanaged or syphoned, as it has been the norm within public administrations. And because debt fund alone cannot lead to develop ment in a state (even if well accounted for), development challenges still persist coupled with lack of devoted leaders to change. Such attitude keeps a state in a round-the-clock spin within the dependency circle. So yes, political conditions do have effects on the effectiveness of foreign aid and much more, on the development of a state.5.4 Suggestion for Further ResearchThe decay in social services such as the education sector was not only because of myopic financial allocation but also as a result of corrupt practices. What this work couldnt cover adequately was to find out how possible it is that relief funds were not diverted, yet, the NAPEP estimated impact on human development is not all that visible. This is because diversion in funds impedes development. Or could it be that the infinitesimal growth experienced from the debt relief fund was all that there was and funds were not diverted, mismanaged or wasted? In other words, why didnt the debt relief plan aid NEPAP in er adicate poverty before 2010?

Concept of perceived effective leadership

Concept of perceive trenchant mastermindershipThe literature review pass on focus on two dimensions of literature. The first is to look at the kind of lead that is termed as effective by looking at numerous definition of loss leadership and the conceptualization of leader effectiveness done by previous studies as well as conceptualization by Kouzes and Posner (2002) in which he peckerd effective leadership victimization his Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). The due south is to look at the definition of rightfulness and how it is conceptualized and measured from the perspective of leadership. To this, the author wishes to use the Perceived Leader Integrity carapace (PLIS) developed by Craig and Gustafson (1998) as previous studies indicated that it is one of the reli open modal values to measure oneness from perspective of leadership. Having the two components of this remove defined, this paper besides attempted to explain the theory be the relationship mingled w ith the two components based on previous studies.This chapter critically and selectively reviews the concept of perceived effective leadership and perceived ace in leadership and their relationship from published journals and articles. The author believes that this could be useful for disposition and the development of theoretical posers.2.2. Effective leadershipAs public organizations argon lining an change magnitudely complex environs due to globalization, advancement in technology and communication, more than diverse workforce, the need to meet and satisfy citizens and customers satisfaction through high-quality ser crimes, the watchword for effective leadership in public organizations has become crystal-clear though it has been contended that effective leaders with rectitude ar often lacking in organizations (Haberfeld, 2006 Rowe, 2006) to bring the want impact.Previous inquiry indicated that leadership is a complex process and leadership theories stimulate been def ined and developed substantially over the last decades and as claimed by Bennis and Nanus (1985) cited in Olu Oyinlade (2006) that leadership had been defined by researchers in over 350 different ways in the 30 years prior to 1985. This was in like manner concord by abstruse in 1990 who stated that there seems to be many definitions of leadership than the number of researchers striving to story the concept. According to Conger (1992) also cited in Olu Oyinlade that so far there is no single agreed-upon definition as leadership is largely an intuitive concept and this is agreed by Bennis (2007) that recent research suggests there is no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership. The close common so far of leadership theories are the traits theory, behavioral theory, contingency theory, and leader-member exchange (LMX), the transformational and transactional theory. Due to the vast definitions of leadership, Bass (1990) cited in Schafer (2009) hinted and pinpointed both(prenomina l) common unifying theory implying that leadership is the persuasive power and ability to influence group of people or individuals or some other behaviours in an coordinated manner to achieve some pre-determined goal.Kouzes and Posner (2004) defined leadership by their followers and it involves a relationship between those who want to lead and those who spot to follow. They suggested that any discussion of leadership should follow this norm of relationship. Kouzes and Posners assertion for leaders and followers relationship is based on followers intuition and they normally play upon leaders for collective success. Thus, the implication to follow well-grounded leaders is high and to follow boastful leaders is too costly as it depose non be denied that some leaders are often tempted and lured to manipulate their position for personal gain ( avant-garde Vugt et al., 2008).Previous studies on followers esteemment of leadership focused on the behaviours associated with effective leadership and past findings also indicated that dimensions of what they call as effective leadership vary from instrument to instrument of research. To this, prior study by obturate and Proctor-Thomson (2002) in citing Bass (1985) in their study on Perceived integrity of transformational leaders in organisational acttings suggested that effective leadership can be related to transformational leadership behaviours of see influence, inspiring motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration which are very much admired and could become respected role-model. The researchers used Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS) by Craig and Gustafson (1989) to measure leaders integrity and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) developed by Bass (1985) to measure transformational leadership involving a sample 1,354 out of 6,025 managers throughout new-fashioned Zealand and found a strong positive relationship between perceived integrity and demonstration of transformati onal leadership behaviours. However, this study will not apply the MLQ as an instrument to measure effective leadership as it is criticised on the ground that it lacks ability to measure accurately and distinguish the four dimensions of transformational leadership from one some other (Bycio, Hackett Allen, 1995 Tepper and Percy, 1994 Tracey Hinkin, 1998 Yammarino Dubinsky, 1994) although it has been widely used in many investigations of transformational and transactional leadership (Den Hartog, Van Muijen Koopman , 1997).Some theorists also raised questions regarding the notion that transformational leadership may not necessarily lead followers to higher honourable ground only if instead may lead to unethical and immoral direction (Giampetro, Br hold, Browne Kubasek, 1998 Yukl, 1998) as cited in Parry and Proctor-Thomson (2002). This has given rise to another dimension of transformational leadership in what Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) called as authentic which refers to real ethical leader and pseudo-transformational which is un uniformly to be ethical leader. This notion of transformational leader related to effective leadership will not be applied in this study as some researcher like Ciulla (1995) raised the issue of Hitler problem who argued that Hitler mustiness not be in the same category as Martin Luther King, Jr. though the Nazis during his time might have treated him to be effective and transformational.The idea of charismatic leadership too will not be related to effective leadership in this study although Conger and Kanungo (1998) described charismatic leaders to possess all the qualities of vision, drive, passion and ability of leaders to inspire their followers into action. merely Bass (1985) argued that charismatic leaders often lead to dictatorship than real leaders with inclusion of qualities much(prenominal) as narcissism, manipulation of people and defensiveness in the example such as Hitler and Mussolini.To this, Kouzes and Posner (1988) came up with their Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to conceptualize leadership behaviours associated with leader effectiveness based on five dimensions of practices Modelling the Way, Inspiring a Shared Vision, Challenging the Process, alter new(prenominal)s to Act, and Encouraging the Heart. The construction of LPI is although not designed for transformational or transactional leadership styles, but the instruments contents of different scales may from subordinates point of view contains elements of transformational and transactional leadership styles (Fields Herold, 1997).Other studies indicated an emergence in perception of effective leadership can lead to an increase in subordinate and organizational effectiveness. To this, researchers like Jaussi and Dionne (2004) in their study on impose on _or_ oppress leader behaviour, subordinate satisfaction, effort and perception of leader effectiveness cited Bass (1990) claimed that an increased in perception of leader effectiveness can lead to grand subordinate arrangeance which in turn can enhance organizational effectiveness as one the terce outcomes documented in previous leadership literature.As there are too many literatures associated with effective leadership, this paper only attempted to use the term effective leadership as derived by Kouzes and Posner (2002) through his Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) and the dimensions that articulate and explain effective leadership. The reason as to why practices are selected rather than traits and characteristics of leadership is based on the understanding of leaders behaviour through the role theory that can provide insight and understanding on how roles and behaviours influence subordinates behaviour. Role has been defined as a socially specified pattern of behaviour that accompanies a particular position within a social scope (Deaux Wrightsman, 1988) cited in Huse (1998). In another definition, roles are also the combination of expectat ions and performances on the part of those who are interacting with each other (Neal, 1983). Hooijberg and Quinn (1992) also stated that in order to increase their effectiveness, leaders may perform and execute variety of leadership roles and practices in the organizational setting.Another reason for the role theory to be accepted and not the traits theory is because previous literatures on the traits theory popularised in 1930s only explained leadership effectiveness by means of natural characteristics, skills and abilities such as self-efficacy, decisiveness, and interpersonal competences to be associated with organizational effectiveness. But this theory has been subjected to criticism on the ground that this theory lacks predictive power in linking leadership traits to performance (Stogdill, 1948). Consequently, in 1940s and 1950s, the leadership behaviour theory was introduced to explain leadership effectiveness based on leaders behaviours and practices they should play to prov ide new perspective on understanding leadership effectiveness (Steers, ostiary Bigley, 1996) cited in Oyinlade (2006). The theory explains that the behaviour of the leader occurs within the context of various roles and practices the leader plays. This further justifies why leadership practices and behaviours are important to influence subordinates behaviour and this also helps to explain that the effectiveness of the leader is influenced by his/her roles obligations and expectations.2.3. Measurement of effective leadershipIn a study done in 2008 to more than 1,000 patrol supervisors attending the FBI National Academy (NA) in Quantico, Virginia which involved 1,042 of the 1,071 (97.3 percent) NA attendees completed all or part of the survey, the survey concluded that efficacy of police chiefs who are effective leaders was most strongly linked with integrity, work ethic, communication, and care for personnel while ineffective leaders were characterized as failing to express these t raits or were characterized as suffering from indistinct ethics and integrity. The study revealed that 37.5 percent of respondents ranked honesty and integrity as the most important characteristics of an effective leader. The study also acknowledged that development of effective leaders and leadership practices is a persistent problem in policing (Schafer, 2009)A study done in 2008 involving a do of 1,000 high public school teachers in Amman, Jordan which studied the behaviours of their principals using Kouzes and Posners LPI has shown that 550 school teachers represent 55 per cent of the targeted respondents of 1,000 have assessed their principals as holdly practising Kouzes and Posners leadership practices model and identified them as transformational which is also associated with effective leadership (Abu-Tineh et.al. 2008).2.4. IntegrityIntegrity is a concept commonly discussed in a formal and informal way and usually associated with leadership and organisational theory, but it is yet to be defined and theoretically understood (Rieke Guastello, 1995) as cited in Parry and Proctor-Thomson (2002). Previous definitions on integrity indicated that integrity has been defined in different manner and in different forms due to different lines of research by previous researchers. This was conceded by Hooijberg et.al (2010) that the complexity regarding its meaning and recitation makes it difficult to be understood. Hence, its broad dimensions had led to many researchers to associate it with ethics, honesty, dedicate, credibility, and character that have been used and applied interchangeably in many past literatures (Hooijberg et.al., 2010 Becker, 1998 Yukl Van Fleet, 1990) Kouzes and Posner (2002) Ciulla (2004). In 2007 and 2009, Palanski and Yammarino cited in Hooijberg et. al. who successfully found evidence of relationship between integrity and honesty also asserted that it involves matching deeds to words, a wiz of morality and that it lies in the eyes of the beholder. This was shared by Kirkpartrick and Locke (1991) and Covey (1992) described integrity as walking the talk with no desire other than for the good of others. This was supported by Mayer, Davis, and Schoorman, (1995) by stating that integrity should be more than walk the talk but is associated to an individuals full commitment to underlying principles.For Kolthoff et al. (2010) stated integrity has its buns in ethics and Lawton (1998) asserted that ethics and integrity encapsulate a code of conduct as basis for actions. Notably some examples of ethics entrancement in public organizations include lying, cheating, rule-bending, stealing public property, harming others and so on (Ciulla, 2004). For Van der Wal Huberts Van Den Heuvel and Kolthoff (2006), they described integrity within organizational context to constitute wholeness and in the Latin word -integritas which means acting according to moral values, norms and rules and which must take place within the context and environment in which one works or operates and accepted by the members of the organisation.For integrity also means trust as Bennis (1989) stated that integrity is the basis of trust and Simons (1999) in asserting that trust of subordinates in leaders behaviours is very important suggested behavioral integrity (BI) rather than self-perceived integrity or any statement on integrity as the main focus research on integrity to describe leaderships style and behaviours as there often mismatch between certain values and enacted values of leaders behaviour. The author duly admits that this has been the common flaw in public service where leaders normally ignore subordinates trust and in many instances they do not need subordinates trust as they probably feel proud to helm public organizations and hence could have acted on their own for self-loving gain. It is here that mistrust and dishonesty exist within public organizations and as Kolthoff et al. (2010) pointed out that integrity is affected. Other researchers like Padilla, Hogan, and Kaiser (2007) also believed and argued that the occurrences of corruption, unethical and bad behaviours, mismanagement and so on perpetrated by people in position of power appointed in public organizations can be traced to issues of integrity. That is why integrity must be perceived as a moral courage and the will and willingness public servants ought to do and to go against what is not right and believes to be wrong (Kolade, 1999).How integrity is important for leadership? Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) Kouzes and Posner (2002) cited in Hooijberg et.al (2010) asserted that integrity is not only good for organizations but also to be an important trait of leaders. Becker (1998) argued that beautiful leaders are people viewed and perceived to be high in integrity because they do not want to gain something out of organizational resources for selfish reasons. This is consistent with Badaracco and Ellsworths (1990) notion that leade rs with values and integrity normally make decisions in accordance with the enacted values of the organization and for Kouzes and Posner, (2002) added that leaders with integrity would be able to convince followers that they are worth to be followed. While Kanungo and Mendonca (1996) cited in Parry and Proctor-Thomson (2002) also stated that integrity in leadership has become an increasing concern for business and organisations. To this, many theorists now believe that leadership without integrity may put the organisations at risk, (Morgan, 1993 Mowday, Porter Steers, 1982 Posner Schmidt, 1984).Perhaps, the most important definition of integrity related to leadership was given by Tan Sri Mohd. Sidek Hassan who is the Chief Secretary to the government of Malaysia in his public lecture dated 25 Mac 2009 that integrity can be defined as continuous adherence to moral principles, honesty, wholeness, the quality of being unimpaired soundness. He also reminded civil servants on the need to enter integrity especially on the role of leadership in public institutions in order to deliver high quality of service delivery (http//www.pmo.gov.my/ksn/?frontpage/speech/detail/1512. accessed 5th April 2011).From the so many definitions of integrity mentioned above, it is clear that integrity plays an important role in establishing and keep backing high ethical standards in public organizations but it must start with the top echelon of the organizations which must be perceived to have integrity as without it the whole system and existing reform measures will be meaningless.2.5. Measurement of integrityHogan and Kaiser (2010) in their study on How to assess (not to assess) the integrity of managers stated that various attempts have been made in the past to assess and measure integrity in leadership including using the Big Five Personality Theory as researcher like Allport (1937) and other moral philosophers linked leaders integrity to personality and they believed that leade rs personality could influence individuals and groups behaviours. To this, measurement of leaders personality using The Big Five Personality theory was a questionable issue related to how sound the integrity test works with leaders (Howard Thomas, 2010) and although it can predict counterproductive work behaviour based on the deuce-ace dimensions of personality theory Conscientiousness, Agreeableness and Emotional Stability but it does not measure counterproductive behaviours. Another critic for the theory was by Mischel (1977) who suggested that personality is most important in weak situations and of course in strong situation it could provide solid cues about leaders appropriate behaviour which resulted in peoples certificatory actions.Hogan and Kaiser (2010) also stated that another measurement technique linked integrity to leaders efficacy model theory and by using the data that delivered subordinates ratings of 672 directors and vice presidents utilise by a Fortune 500 tec hnology firm in the United States, this method defines integrity as a leadership competency and measures it using co-worker ratings of observed ethical behaviour. The test used 23-items to measure five competencies and integrity is one of them. The result of the competency test found that the behavioural ratings suggested only a negligible proportion of managers may have integrity issues and do not identify leaders with integrity issues as most of the items in the questionnaire only reflect the desirable end of integrity construct. The study also did not differentiate between high and low-performing managers, and hence cannot be used as an appropriate measurement to identify leaders with integrity issues.What have been done by previous measurements only focused on positive behaviours of managers that might not have been able to identify leaders with integrity issues. However, using Craig and Gustafson (1998) measurement technique of Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS) which focu ssed on perception of unethical behaviours of leaders using only a short version of 8-items questionnaire survey rather than 32-items, Hogan and Kaiser (2010) in their study using data from 80 employed MBA students at a university in the South-Eastern United States has proven that this technique is a reliable way of assessing leaders with potential integrity issues as correlation and obsession analyses using the PLIS suggested that trust and leaders integrity is the primary determinant of employee attitudes and effective leadership perceptions. Apart from using PLIS, Hogan and Kaiser also used Leader Behaviour translation Questionnaire (LBDQ) developed by Stogdill (1963) in the study to assess the leaders effectiveness via two-factor of leaders behaviour, that is, Initiating Structure and Consideration scales (10-items for each scale) and found that PLIS is the strongest predictor of all the three predictors and another result indicated that leader perceived integrity was highly c orrelated with consideration rather than initiating structure which means leaders need to pay more attention to the needs of the subordinates.So, this study will use the PLIS to measure perceived leaders integrity from subordinates assessment in the focus area, that is, the selected Sabah states agencies in Kota Kinabalu.2.6. Relationship between effective leadership and perceived integrityParry and Proctor-Thomson (2002) in their study on Perceived Integrity of Transformational Leaders in Organisational Settings involving 1,354 useable samples out of 6,025 managers in private and public organizations throughout New Zealand using both PLIS and MLQ to measure perceived leader integrity and effectiveness respectively found that there was positively significant correlation between leader perceived integrity and a range of leader effectiveness measures in which leader effectiveness was measured with items such as satisfaction with leadership, perceived leader effectiveness, extra effort s from followers and motivation of followers.A study done by Hooijberg et.al in 2010 involving 175 bureau chiefs and directors of a state government agency in the North-eastern USA taking part in a leadership-training program using 20-items survey of Competing Values Framework (CVF) to assess managers effectiveness through eight leadership roles Producer, Director, Coordinator, Monitor, Mentor, Facilitator, Innovator and as Broker revealed that integrity has an above impact of leadership effectiveness followed by honesty and goal-orientation is the leadership role that bosses highly associated with leaders effectiveness.In addition to the above studies, other past literatures on the study of leadership focussed on the impact of leadership on organization and indicated it was the leaderships role to protect and enhance the invulnerability of public agencies to threats of integrity as suggested by Selznick (1957) that the integrity of the institution is vulnerable to corruption if the leader fails to protect the institutions distinctive values, competence and role. The importance of leaders to demonstrate integrity was also studied by Gray (1985) and Fiedler (1995) as cited in Huse (1998) who argued that leaders will inspire others when they demonstrated integrity. This shows that leadership with integrity is vital to protect organizations vulnerability to corruption as well as to inspire others to behave in a forthright and open-manner and lead the organization into the future which is part of leaders demonstration of integrity.The study by OECD in 2005 on Public Sector Integrity A Framework for assessment regarding perception of integrity in all its member countries such as Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, New Zealand, Germay, Japan and host of other countries indicated that integrity in public agencies starts at the top and through leaders actions and behaviour. Instilling a culture of integrity has to come from the top such as the senior managem ent, fountainhead of department, governing board etc. Leaders in public organizations must keep integrity at the forefront activities so that employees can take their cues and examples from the top.Other research also has shown that supervisors or leaders are the primary influence on the ethical behaviours of their subordinates (Morgan, 1993 Posner Schmidt, 1984). Their contention is based on the belief that as integrity is also about ethical behaviours, this indicates that if leaders exercise ethical behaviour this will lead to larger implications on subordinates behaviours and behaviours of others in the organization. To this, an effective leadership must lead the initiatives to create an atmosphere where individuals in the organization feel safe to move forward to becoming an ideal and competitive organization. But this will regard on the leaderships beliefs in motivation and competitive spirit of all members in the organization on the adherence to values of honesty, ethics, a nd trust.What is important is a statement by Morgan (1993) who emphasized the ethical leaderships positive impact on organisational effectiveness will result in ethical development which is very important to the leaders success. Morgan also found that followers perception of leaders ethics was positively related to their perceptions of leaders effectiveness.2.7. Summary of Literature ReviewBased on the numerous definitions of integrity given by previous researchers such as Becker (1998), integrity is conceptualized as similar to honesty, trust, ethics, matching words with deeds and actions, and a commitment in actions to set of principles and values. In other words, integrity is about something ethical and morality in words and in actions in accordance with existing norms, cultures, values, processes, rules and laws in which managers and leaders in public organizations must adhere to in order to create and maintain public trust.Previous studies indicated that effective leadership ca n be conceptualized and perceived using Kouzes and Posners (2002) Leadership Practices Inventory or LPI which emphasizes on leadership practices in five dimensions Inspiring Vision, Model the Way, Challenge the process, Enable others to act and Encourage the heart. Recent study by Abu-Tineh et.al (2008) done in 2008 in Amman, Jordan involving a sample of 550 school teachers resulted in the school teachers assessed their school principals as having practiced Kouzes and Posners leadership practices and has identified them as transformational which is also related to effective leadership.The leaders integrity can be perceived by using Craig and Gustafsons (1998) Perceived Leader Integrity Scale of PLIS in which Parry and Proctor-Thomson in 2002 has conducted a study on a sample of 1,354 private and public managers in New Zealand using PLIS and found a moderate to positive relationship between perceived leader integrity and transformational leadership behaviours measured using Multifac tor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ).Other previous literatures also pinpointed to the needs for perceived effective leadership to possess moral values such as honesty, trust and ethics or in other words integrity to maintain trust and create followers positive perception of leaders effectiveness and integrity to bring the desired impact to the organizations.

Financial Performance Benchmarking in the Electricity Distribution Indu

A Review of Research Literature Results on Financial Performance Benchmarking in the Electricity Distribution Industry IntroductionSince the easy 1980s, there has been significant regulatory reform in the electricity transmission and distribution industries in many countries. Under traditional cost-of-service rate ordinance, companies recover their be under a regulated rate of return, which may provide little incentive to minimize costs. Alternatively, incentive or performance based regimes are designed to incent productive efficiency by compensating the company for achieving costs savings. Joskow 1 and Joskow and Schlalensee 2 discuss a number of economic regulatory models have been proposed in the literature. According to Jamasb and Pollitt 3, incentive regulation usually involves some form of benchmarking or comparison of actual versus some reference level of performance. We will review the literature results on benchmarking methods for electricity distributors.Jamasb and Polli tt 3 print the results of an international survey on the use of benchmarking in incentive regulation of electricity transmission and distribution utilities. Farsi et al. 4 provide a summary of benchmarking methods used in regulation in several countries. Both of these survey papers cite Corrected Ordinary Least Squares (COLS), Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Stochastic boundary Analysis (SFA) as methods commonly employed in electricity distribution benchmarking. After briefly describing several models of incentive regulation, we compare the literature results presented in for each one survey paper ( 3, 4 ) with respect to the techniques mentioned above (COLS, DEA, and SFA). We then present addition results from the literature on th... ...-specific efficiency levels in parametric, semi-parametric and non-parametric settings. Sickles, R. 2005, Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 126, pp. 305-334.30. Estimation of technical inefficiiency in panel data models with firm and time specifi c effects. Kumbhakar, S.C. 1991, Economics Letters, Vol. 36, pp. 43-48.31. Panel estimates of a two tiered earnings frontier. Polachek, S. and Yoon, B. 1996, Journal of Applied Econometrics, Vol. 11, pp. 169-178.32. Reconsidering heterogeneity in panel data estimators of the stochastic frontier model. Greene, W.H. 2005, Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 126, pp. 269-303.33. Kuosmanen, T. Stochastic semi-nonparametric efficiency analysis of electricity distribution networks application of the StoNED method in the Finnish regulatory model. Aalto University School of Economics. s.l. Social Science Research Network, 2011.

Men Giving Birth? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Men Giving Birth?A leading British fertility expert, Lord Winston, says it should be manageable for a man to carry a baby to term and then deliver it by a Caesarean section. In Winstons view, modern medical engineering will soon allow homosexual male couples to bear children, or allow a heterosexual male to carry a child if his wife is unable to for medical reasons. Male pregnancy would certainly be possible and would be the same as when a woman has an ectopic pregnancy -- outback(a) the uterus -- although to sustain it, youd have to give the man lots of female endocrines, Winston told the Times. He will outline the concept in his new book, The IVF Revolution. IVF stands for in vitro fertilization. Winston acknowledges that thither could be a few problems with the technique. Among other things, the man could experience internal bleeding -- and he might grow breasts. I dont think there would be a rush of people wanting to implement this technology, he said. (1) Presently, research ers are now busy perfecting a reliable birth-control drug for men. A five-year study, conducted by the ANZAC interrogation Institute in Sydney, involved 55 men using hormonal injections and implants as birth control. None of the mens partners conceived and there were no side effect compared to other trials, which have been terminated due to unforeseen problems. The contraceptive works by inhibiting sperm production through injections of progestin every three months. Since this hormone also reduces the sex drive, testosterone had to be implanted under the mens skin every four months to maintain their libido. After a 12-month period, participants would stop the treatment to acquire their fertility. This is the first time a reversible male contraceptive that will suppress sperm production reliably and reversibly has been fully tested by couples, Professor David Handelsman, the studys director, was quoted by Reuters as saying. Melissa Dear, a spokesperson for the Family Planning Asso ciation, told CNN that she thought it was unlikely that the final product would be marketed in the form of an injection. Its as well as awkward a method, she said. This study has brought the reality of the male contraceptive pill one step closer, but we need to look at combining some(prenominal) hormones in a tablet form. She added that although the Family Planning Association welcomed the news, she anticipated that it would be five to 10 years before a male contraceptive was useable commercially.

Blood Stained Water :: Papers

Blood Stained Water A shrill screamed issued from her mouth, it filled the room, and then stopped as suddenly as it began, leaving echoes lingering in the air. The body of a man lay on the taradiddle, dressed in a charcoal sorry suit, and faded around the cuffs and the collar. His ageing wrinkled hands clutched onto his chest, soaked in the warm, wet blood, which stained his shirt. A faint drip could still be comprehend in the eerily silent accept. His face was so vivid with fear. It could be seen in his usually warm, brown eyes. His oval spectacles were shattered on the floor beside him. The moonlight peered through a gap in the thick, woven cream curtains it was reflected off the shards of lens over the walls and ceiling like a 70s disco ball, though the atmosphere was much different. A rug of screwed paper littered the floor next to the empty filing cabinets, hours of notes on hundreds of patients now showered across the floor. The rest of the study looked as normal, the room dark, save for the small lamp which lit the heavily varnished mahogany bureau, shining on the doctors most recent work, the ink still wet. pitch blackness lurked in every corner, hopefully it was just now the blackness that lurked there, nothing else was hiding in the shadows, and whatever had been there had long gone. It was an unnerving place to be. Name? asked the bald police detective. Miss Heather Chandler replied the young woman. Victims name? he questioned with the same unemotional voice. Please do we have to do this now? He only died last night. Sniff, the emotions of the girl struggled o stay inside. I understand Miss, but its easier to get it out of the way. Try and answer what you can and stop when youve had enough. Despite his rowing being sympathetic his voice didnt change, it seemed routine, as if he was reciting from a textbook or something. Sniff ok, his name was Doctor Steven Chandler sniff, her snif fs